The value of a specific model is determined within the context of use. Like any other instrument, a model assumes a specific intention of its user. A model should be judged by how it mediates the designer's intention, how well it can share a work load, and how effectively it shifts focus away from itself toward the object of the design activity.

Models, like other tools, shape the consciousness of those who use them. The tool molds the wielder who molds the tool, ad infinitum. Our models frame the reality we impose on the world and the experience that is forged out of their use brings us to higher levels of understanding about the design problem, but only within the framework of the specific models we adopt.

-Martin Ryder

Some Basics

Corollary Sites

The Models:

Cognitivist, Constructivist and Postmodern Models Action Research (Participatory Design Models) Activity Theory (artifact-mediated and object-oriented action) Anchored Instruction (John Bransford) Bransford profile (Sebastian Foti) Anchored Instruction (Greg Kearsley) (mirror) Anchored Instruction (Roxanne Ruzic and Kathy O'Connell) Anchored Instruction (Barbara Grabowski and Marianne McCarthy) Anchored Instruction (Open Learning Technology Corp) Anchored Instruction (Irene Chen) Anchored Instruction (Tony Brown) Anchored Instruction (Julie Barbadillo) Learning and Technology Center Vanderbilt University Jasper Woodbury (LTC, Vanderbilt) Who is Jasper Woodburry? (Debra Viadero) Glaser and Prestidge (1995) Technological Support for Anchored Instruction Andrgogy (Malcom Knowles) Knowles profile (by Robert Carlson, courtesy of David Maier) What is andragogy? (Tracy Gedies) andragogy (PatricK Mendelsohn) andragogy (Camargo, Hyde and Whigham) Andragogy summarized (Stephen Brookfield) Andragogy + Pedagogy (Learnativity) Knowles? Andragogy (James Atherton) Fidishun Andragogy and Technology: Integrating Adult Learning Theory As We Teach With Technology Adult Learning: An Overview (Stephen Brookfield) Cognitivism Cognitive approach (Judith Conway) Cognitivism (Yu Ching Chen) Cognitivism (Susan Colaric) Cognitivism (Craig Reed) Cognitivism (Sonja Wilhelmsen, Stein Inge Åsmul & Øyvind Meistad,) Cognitive Theories of Learning: Bruner, Ausubel, and Gagne (Charles Sturt Univ) Against cognitivism: the discursive construction of cognitive mechanisms (Andrew Lock) Advanced Organizers (David Ausubel) Ausubel profile (Barbara Bowen) Ausabel profile (Sebastian Foti) Ausubel: Advance Organizers overview (Terry Armstrong) Cone of Experience (Edgar Dale) Dale profile (David Maier) Cone of Experience (Leilani Carbonell) Cone of Experience (Florida State Univ) Cone of Learning (North Carolina State Univ) Information Processing see George Miller Cognitive Information Processing (David Perry) Information Processing (Greg Kearsley) Information Processing (Open Learning Technology Corporation Ltd.) Information Processing (Petrina Quinn) Information Process Theory of Learning (Univ of Missouri Tech Town) Concept Mapping (Joseph Novak) Concept Mapping (Jan Lanzing) Concept Mapping (Steven Hale) Concept Mapping (Cassidy, Griffiths, and Nakonechny) Introduction to Concept Maps (University of Illinois at Urbana/Champaign) Concept Map FAQ (Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Univ of W. Fla) Concept MappingConcept Mapping (Maryland State Dept of Education) Anderson-Inman (1996) Computer-based Concept Mapping: Promoting Meaningful Learning in Science for Students with Disabilities Cicognani (2000) Concept Mapping as a Collaborative Tool for Enhanced Online Learning Gains and Shaw (1995) Concept Maps as Hypermedia Components Gains and Shaw (1995) Collaborationthrough Concept Maps Novak (1992) The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How To Construct Them Øhrstrøm (1996) C. S. Peirce and the Quest for Gamma Graphs Plotnick (1997) Concept Mapping: A Graphical System for Understanding the Relationship Between Concepts Crandell, Kleid, & Soderston (1996) Empirical evaluation of concept mapping: A job performance aid for writers. Technical Communications (review by Lorraine Sherry) Novak Home Page Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins, Brown and Newman) Collins, Brown, and Hulum (1991) Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible (review by Dan Watola) Cognitive Apprenticeship (Judith Conway) Berryman (1994) Cognitive Apprenticeship Models summary (Univ of Massachusetts) summary (Univ of Nevada) summary (Ray Jones, Poppy Pickard) Clancey (1992) Representations of knowing: In defense of cognitive apprenticeship Informatique et transformation de la pédagogie (Collins, Brown and Newman) Snyder, Farrell and Baker (2000) Online Mentoring: A Case Study Involving Cognitive Apprenticeship and a Technology-Enabled Learning Environment Wilson and Cole (1996) Cognitive Teaching Models Duncan (1996) Cognitive Apprenticeship in Classroom Instruction: Implications for Industrial and Technical Teacher Education Conway (1997) Educational Technology's Effect on Models of Instruction Casey ((2000) Using Case-Based Reasoning and Cognitive Apprenticeship to Teach Criminal Profiling and Internet Crime Investigation Resnick (1987) Learning In School and Out (Review by Belinda Aboshanab) Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Rand Spiro) Spiro profile (Sebastian Foti) Spiro profile (Michigan State Univ) Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Greg Kearseley) mirror mirror Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Gladys Swindler) Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Susan Colaric) Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Diane McGrath) Ryder (1996) Modern to Postmodern Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, and Coulson (1991) Cognitive Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains mirror mirror mirror Collaboration within and among minds: Mastering complexity, individually and in groups (review by Lorraine Sherry) Boger-NMehall (1997) Implications for Teaching and Teacher Education Cunningham (1994) Teacher Knowledge, Cognitive Flexibility and Hypertext: Case-Based Learning and Teacher Education Pioneering a New Way of Learning in a Complex and Complicated World (Michigan State Univ: New Educator) Rand Spiro Taps Technology for New Learning (MSU Educational Briefings, 2001) Graddy (2000) Cognitive Flexibility Theory as a Pedagogy for Web-Based Course Design Generative Learning Merlin C. Wittrock home page (UCLA) Generative Learning (David Jonassen) Generative Learning (Doug Furey) Generative Learning (East Carolina Univ / Beaufort County PS) Generative process of the brain (Summary by Kay Wijekumar) The Generative Learning Model (Delena Norris-Tull) Grabowski Mathemagenic and Generative Learning Theory: A Comparison and Implications for Designers (notes by Antonia Palmer) Bonn and Grabowski Generative Learning Theory: A Practical Cousin to Constructivism Generative Learning and Web Development (Martin Ryder) Generative Teaching of Comprehension (Gillian Scalzo) Schaverien and Cosgrove (1999) A Biological Basis for Generative Learning in Science Schaverien (2000) Towards research based designing for understanding fundamental concepts: The case of the web delivered generative virtual classroom for teacher education CSCL Computer Supported Collaborative Learning CSCL (Lorraine Sherry) Gifford and Enyedy (1999) Activity Centered Design: Towards a Theoretical Framework for CSCL Bannon (1989) Issues in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning CSILE Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments (Scardamalia and Bereiter) Scardamalia and Bereiter CSILE (Jón Erlendsson) Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994) Computer Support for Knowledge-Building Communities CSILE (Greg Gay, 1996) Conversation Theory (Gordon Pask) Pask links Definition (Martin Ryder) Overview (Greg Kearsley) Pask's Words and What We Want From Them (Paul Pangaro) Ryder (1995) Usenet: a Constructivist Learning Environment Non-linear Sequencing (Sara McNeil) Discovery Learning (Jerome Bruner) Discovery Learning (Judith Conway) Discovery Learning (Ken Martin) Discovery Learning (Don Clark) Discovery Learning (Donna Ferguson) Discovery Learning (Lawrence Tomei) Discovery Learning (Skip Bardin) Discovery Learning (Penn State Univ) Jerome Bruner and Discovery Learning (Jack Hassard) Discovery Learning (Skip Bardin) Bruner's Constructivist Theory (Peter Patsula) Perry Making Sense of Bruner's Theory of Cognitive Development in College Instruction (1996) Discovery Learning with Computer Simulations of Conceptual Domains Tuovinen (1995) Cognitive Load and Discovery Learning Lewis, Bishay, McArthur, and Chou (1992) Supporting Discovery Learning in Mathematics: Design and Analysis of an Exploration Environment and Inquiry Activities Discovery Learning Resource Page Bubb, Guy, and Hansler Conway (1997) Educational Technology's Effect on Models of Instruction Inquiry Teaching A Cognitive Theory of Inquiry Teaching (C.E. Brooks) Haury (1993) Teaching Science through Inquiry. mirror Interpretation Construction (ICON) Design Model (Black and McClintock) Black and McClintock (1995) An Interpretation Construction Approach to Constructivist Design abstract John Black Robbie McClintock Black, Thalheimer, Wilder, de Soto, and Picard (1994) Constructivist Design of Graphic Computer Simulations Black, McClintock, and Hill (1994) Assessing Student Understanding and Learning in Constructivist Study Environments Griffin (2000) Applications of Constructivism in Earth Science Smith (1999) Constructivist Theory in Instructional Design: Evaluating the Role of the Learner Three Constructivist Design Models (Disney Learning Partnership) Mind Tools (David Jonassen) Jonassen profile (Sebastian Foti) Jonassen Technology as Cognitive Tools: Learners as Designers Mindtool Resource Page (Gary Lewallen) The Minimalist Model (John Carroll) Maria Montessori Montessori profile (Mark Smith) Montessori profile (David Maier) Montessori profile (Tarraugh Flaherty) Montessori profile (Linda Woolf) Montessori profile (the Ottawa Montessori School) Montessori profile (The International Montessori Index) Montessori Education (Marsha Enright and Doris Cox, 1997) The Montessori Apporach (Association Montessori Internationale) Original works by Maria Montessori Problem-Based Learning PBL Overview (Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction) PBL Overview (Wheeling Jesuit University) PBL Overview (Jee Park) Ambury (1992) Beginning to Tutor Problem-Based Learning (CASAE paper) Savery and Duffy (1995) Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework (review by Chuck Ferguson) Duffy (1996) Problem Based Learning: Research and Practice (Course Description) Lewis (1997) Distributed Course Delivery for Problem Based Learning Camp (1996) Problem-Based Learning: A Paradigm Shift or a Passing Fad? White (1996) Dan Tries Problem-Based Learning: A Case Study Nowskowski et.al (1996) Learner-Centered Classrooms, Problem-Based Learning, and the Construction of Understanding and Meaning by Students Scott (1994) Problem-based Learning in Dental Education Shanley (1996) Why Problem-based Learning? Sample PBL Problems (University of Deleware) The Project Method (Kilpatrick and Dewey) Self-initiated, wholistic, purposeful activity Of Chickens and Projects (Henry Olds) Bazilian The Project Method Grégoire and Laferrière(1999) Project Based Collaborative Learing with Networked Computers Knoll (1997) The Project Method: Its Vocational Education Origin and International Development Hirsch (1996) The Schools We Need: And Why We Don’t Have Them Holt (1994) Dewey and the "Cult of Efficiency": Competing Ideologies in Collaborative Pedagogies of the 1920s Hermle (1998) Projekt:"Schreibwerkstatt" Flanagan (1995) John Dewey Role Play Bird Play From A Theoretical Point of View Choi (2000) Let's Play : Children with Autism and Their Play Partners Together Geier (2001) Role-playing in Educational Environments Hume and Wells (1992) Making Lives Meaningful: Extending Perspectives Through Role Play Ip, Linser and Jasinski (2002) The Zen Of Being An Effective Moderator In Online Role-Play Simulations Ip, Linser, and Naidu (2001) Simulated Worlds: Rapid Generation Of Web-Based Role-Play Naidu, Ip, and Linser (2000) Dynamic Goal-Based Role-Play Simulation on the Web: A Case Study Rieber (1996) Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games Roger Schank Goal-based Scenarios (Virginia Tech) A radical look at education and goal-based scenarios review (by Kellie McGovern) Linser, Naidu and Ip (1999) Pedagogical Foundations of Web-based Simulations in Political Science. Schema Theory see Fredrick Bartlett Schema Theory (Greg Kearsley) Schema Theory (Roger Schank) Schema Theory (Sharon Widmayer) Schema Theory (David Perry) Schema Theory (Erwin Segal) mirror more Schema Theory (McInnis and Morrison) Schema Theory (Stephen Borgotti) Norman, Gentner and Stevens (1976) Comments on learning schemata and memory representation (review by Brent Wilson) Recker (1999) Schema theory & mental models Schank E.D. Hirsch and Schema Theory Suzuki (1987) Schema Theory: A Basis for Domain Information Design Malcolm & Sharifian (2001) Aspects of Aboriginal English Oral Narrative: An Application of Cultural Schema Theory Chandler (1997) Schema Theory and the Interpretation of Television Programmes Sanes (1999) Schemas and Stories SER Model (Gerhart Fisher) Fisher (1996) Making Learning a Part of Life: Beyond the Giftwraping Approach to Technology Situated Cognition Brown, Collins & Duguid Bredo (1994) Cognitivism, Situated Cognition, and Deweyan Pragmatism Lave (Greg Kearsley) Lemke (1995) Cognition, Context, and Learning: a social semiotic perspective William Clancey Learning in Context (Laura Martin) Hansman and Wilson (1998) Cognition and Practice: Adult Learning Situated in Everyday Activity Situated Learning links (Douglass Scott) Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) see Socio-Cultural Theory Bandura profile (Sebastian Foti) Bandura profile (Summer Pierce) Bandura profile (Francis Marion Univ) Bandura profile (George Boeree) Bandura profile (Frank Pagres) Bandura profile (Muskingum College) Bandura Home Page (Stanford) Bandura Web Site (Frank Pagres) Bandura Links (Frank Pagares) Social Learning Theory (Greg Kearsley) Social Learning Theory (Margaret Isom) Social Learning Theory (Em Griffin) mirror Social Learning Theory (Peter J. Patsula) Observational (Social) Learning (Huitt and Hummel) From Behaviorism to Social Cognition (Frank Pagares) Structural Knowledge (David Jonassen) Plotnick (1997) Concept Mapping: A Graphical System for Understanding the Relationship Between Concepts Lanzing (1996) Concept Mapping Homepage Gaines and Shaw Concept Maps as Hypermedia Components

Comparitive Models

• Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism (Brenda Mergel)
• Behaviorist, Cognitivist, Constructivist (Judith Boettcher)
• Behaviorist, Information Processing, Constructivist (Leilani Carbonell)
• Constructivism and Behaviorism (Steve Marti)
• Programmed Learning, Discovery Learning (Faisal Hussain)

• corollary sites which reference this page.
• Front End Analysis
• Constructivism
• InTRO (Harmon, Jones and Surry)
• Sarah McNeil A Hypertext History of Instrcutional Design
• Charles Reigeluth
  • The Green Book
  • The Yellow Book
• Wilson, Jonassen and Cole (1992) Cognitive Approaches To Instructional Design
• Wilson Metaphors for Instruction: why we talk about learning environments
• Conway (1997) Educational Technology's Effect on Models of Instruction
• Mergel (1998) Instructional Design and Learning Theory
• Great Ideas in Education (Sebastian Foti)
• Teaching and Learning with Internet Tools ID models overview from Daniel Schneider (University of Geneva)
• Choosing an Instructional Design Approach: Is There a Best Method? (William Hunter)
• Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino (2000) Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning
• Greg Kearsley Theory Into Practice (TIP) Database (Descriptions of 48 theories related to learning and instruction)